Synonymy,Antonomy and Hyponymy

 A.SYNONYMY

                Synonymy is the state or phenomenon in which the words that sound different (different in pronunciation) but have the same or identical meaning as another word or phrase. The concrete form of synonymy is called “synonym”. Examples: 

small = little  big = large  mother and father = parents politician = statesman

B.ANTONYMY

Antonymy is the state or phenomenon in which the words have the sense relation which involve the opposite of meaning. The concrete form of antonymy is called “antonym” (opposite). The word pairs of antonym can be divided into several types:

a. Implicitly Gradable Pairs (Graded Antonym)

implicitly Gradable Pairs (Graded Antonym) refers to the words related to the object they modify. The words themselves do not provide an absolute scale. Examples:

big >< small good >< bad Relatively fast >< slow comparable young >< old Thus, when we say that “a fly is bigger than another”, we imply that „big‟ is to be understood in the context of „flies‟. Another fact dealing with this type is that “a small elephant”, for example, is much bigger that “a big mouse”. A big mouse A small elephant.

b. Complementary Pairs (Complementarity)

Complementary Pairs (Complemetarity) refers to the existence of pairs that the denial of one, implies the assertion of the other. Examples:

 male >< female alive >< dead Incomparable present >< absent objects awake >< asleep Thus, if one is not male, then one is certainly female; if one is not present, then he/she must be absent, and so on.

 c. Relational Pairs (Converseness).

Relational Pairs (converseness) refers to the pair of words that display symmetry in their meaning. If X gives Y to Z, then Z receives Y from X Relationships between certain semantic features can reveal knowledge about antonyms. Consider: A word that is [+married] is [-single] A word that is [+single] is [-married]These show that any word that bears the semantic property “married”,such as „wife‟, is understood to lack the semantic property “single”; andconversely, any word that bears the semantic property “single”, such as„bachelor‟, will not have the property “married”.

 C.HYPONYMY

Hyponymy is the state or phenomenon that shows the relationship between more general term (lexical representation) and the more specific instances of it. The concrete forms of sets of word (the specific instances) are called “hyponyms”. Example:

The lexical representation of: red, yellow, green, blue, purple, black, is [+color]. Thus, we can say that: “red” is a hyponym of “color”, and so on.

Sometimes there is no single word in the language that encompasses as set of hyponyms. Example:

clarinet, guitar, piano, trumpet, violin are hyponyms because they are “musical instruments”, but there is not a single word meaning “musical instrument” that has these words as its hyponyms.The relationship between the general term and the specific instances is often be described using a hierarchical diagram, called “taxonomy”.Example of Taxonomy:

vegetable greens pulses roots tuberscabbage spinach peas beans carrots turnips potatoes yams

 Look at the following list: Tea,Black coffee , coffee ,Milk ,White coffee ,Beverage From the list, we can make the taxonomy as follow: Beverage tea coffee milk Black coffee White coffee.

Metaphor

Metaphor Definition

Metaphor is a figure of speech which makes an implicit, implied or hidden comparison between two things that are unrelated but share some common characteristics. In other words, a resemblance of two contradictory or different objects is made based on a single or some common characteristics.

In simple English, when you portray a person, place, thing, or an action as being something else, even though it is not actually that “something else,” you are speaking metaphorically. “He is the black sheep of the family” is a metaphor because he is not a sheep and is not even black. However, we can use this comparison to describe an association of a black sheep with that person. A black sheep is an unusual animal and typically stays away from the herd, and the person you are describing shares similar characteristics.

Furthermore, a metaphor develops a comparison which is different from a simile i.e. we do not use “like” or “as” to develop a comparison in a metaphor. It actually makes an implicit or hidden comparison and not an explicit one.

Common Speech Examples of Metaphors

Most of us think of a metaphor as a device used in songs or poems only, and that it has nothing to do with our everyday life. In fact, all of us in our routine life speak, write and think in metaphors. We cannot avoid them. Metaphors are sometimes constructed through our common language. They are called conventional metaphors. Calling a person a “night owl” or an “early bird” or saying “life is a journey” are common conventional metaphor examples commonly heard and understood by most of us. Below are some more conventional metaphors we often hear in our daily life:

1.  My brother was boiling mad. (This implies he was too angry.)
2. The assignment was a breeze. (This implies that the assignment was not difficult.)
3. It is going to be clear skies from now on. (This implies that clear skies are not a threat and life is going to be without hardships)
4. The skies of his future began to darken. (Darkness is a threat; therefore, this implies that the coming times are going to be hard for him.)
5. Her voice is music to his ears. (This implies that her voice makes him feel happy)

Literary Metaphor Examples

Metaphors are used in all type of literature but not often to the degree they are used in poetry because poems are meant to communicate complex images and feelings to the readers and metaphors often state the comparisons most emotively. Here are some examples of metaphor from famous poems.

Example #1

    “She is all states, and all princes, I.”

John Donne, a metaphysical poet, was well-known for his abundant use of metaphors throughout his poetical works. In his well-known work “The Sun Rising,” the speaker scolds the sun for waking him and his beloved. Among the most evocative metaphors in literature, he explains “she is all states, and all princes, I.” This line demonstrates the speaker’s belief that he and his beloved are richer than all states, kingdoms, and rulers in the entire world because of the love that they share.

Example #2

    “Shall I Compare Thee to a summer’s Day”,

William Shakespeare was the best exponent of the use of metaphors. His poetical works and dramas all make wide-ranging use of metaphors.

“Sonnet 18,”also known as “Shall I Compare Thee to a Summer’s Day,” is an extended metaphor between the love of the speaker and the fairness of the summer season. He writes that “thy eternal summer,” here taken to mean the love of the subject, “shall not fade.”

Functions

From the above arguments, explanations and examples, we can easily infer the function of metaphors; both in our daily lives and in a piece of literature. Using appropriate metaphors appeals directly to the senses of listeners or readers, sharpening their imaginations to comprehend what is being communicated to them. Moreover, it gives a life-like quality to our conversations and to the characters of the fiction or poetry. Metaphors are also ways of thinking, offering the listeners and the readers fresh ways of examining ideas and viewing the world.

ambiguity

Ambiguity Definition

Ambiguity or fallacy of ambiguity is a word, phrase, or statement which contains more than one meaning.Ambiguous words or statements lead to vagueness and confusion, and shape the basis for instances of unintentional humor. For instance, it is ambiguous to say “I rode a black horse in red pajamas,” because it may lead us to think the horse was wearing red pajamas. The sentence becomes clear when it is restructured “Wearing red pajamas, I rode a black horse.”

Similarly, same words with different meanings can cause ambiguity e.g. “John took off his trousers by the bank.” It is funny if we confuse one meaning of “bank” which is a building, to another meaning, being “an edge of a river”. Context usually resolves any ambiguity in such cases.

Common Ambiguity Examples.Below are some common examples of ambiguity:

1.       A good life depends on a liver – Liver may be an organ or simply a living person.

2.        Foreigners are hunting dogs – It is unclear whether dogs were being hunted or foreigners are being spoken of as dogs.

3.       Each of us saw her duck – It is not clear whether the word “duck” refers to an action of ducking or a duck that is a bird.

4.       The passerby helps dog bite victim – Is the passerby helping a dog bite someone? Or is he helping a person bitten by a dog? It’s not clear.

Examples of Ambiguity in Literature

Although ambiguity is considered a flaw in writing, many writers use this technique to allow readers to understand their works in a variety of ways, giving them depth and complexity. Let us analyze some ambiguity examples in literature.

Example :

Read the following excerpt from “The Catcher in the Rye” by J. D. Salinger:

 “I ran all the way to the main gate, and then I waited a second till I got my breath. I have no wind, if you want to know the truth. I’m quite a heavy smoker, for one thing—that is, I used to be. They made me cut it out. Another thing, I grew six and a half inches last year. That’s also how I practically got t.b. and came out here for all these goddam checkups and stuff. I’m pretty healthy though.”

The words “they” and “here” used by the speaker are ambiguous. But the readers are allowed to presume from the context that “they” might be the professionals helping out Holden and “here” might be a rehabilitation center.

Example :

“The Sick Rose”, a short lyric written by William Blake, is full of ambiguities:

   “O Rose thou art sick.

    The invisible worm,

    That flies in the night

    In the howling storm:

    Has found out thy bed

    Of crimson joy;

    And his dark secret love

    Does thy life destroy”

Many of the words in the above lines show ambiguity. We cannot say for sure what “crimson bed of joy” means; neither can we be exact about the interpretation of “dark secret love”. The ambiguous nature of such phrases allows readers to explore for deeper meanings of the poem.Some of those who have analyzed this poem believe that “Has found out thy bed, Of crimson joy” refers to making love.

Function of Ambiguity

Ambiguity in literature serves the purpose of lending a deeper meaning to a literary work. By introducing ambiguity in their works, writers give liberty to the readers to use their imagination to explore meanings. This active participation of the readers involves them in the prose or poetry they read.